Lalit's Views: January 2005

Muhammad and Islamic Conquest

This chapter has been published in the book Middle East
& Africa to 1875.

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Muhammad in Mecca

Muhammad in Medina at War 622-628

Muhammad Triumphant 628-632

Qur'an and Hadith

Islamic Wars in the Near East 632-661

Umayyad Caliphate 661-750

Yemen and the Hijaz region were settled with agriculture and
commerce as early as 1000 BC, while nomadic Bedouins lived in
most of Arabia. The development of sea routes in the first century
BC caused hardship for Yemeni trade as Bedouins moved in. After
the Judean revolts were crushed by the Roman empire in the first
and second centuries CE, many Jews fled to this region. Palmyra
was destroyed in 271 CE, and Nabateans and northern Arabia were
conquered by the Roman empire. Arab king Imru al-Qays ibn 'Amr
gained control of Najran in 328 CE. Yemen managed to reestablish
the Himyarite kingdom and in the fifth century related with the
Bedouins through the Kinda tribal confederation. By the end of
the fifth century the Arab Christian kingdom of Ghassan was able
to defend the Sasanian Persian empire by keeping the Bedouins
out of Syria and Palestine.

In southern Iraq the kingdom of Lakhm made of Aramean Christian
tribes was supported by Sasanian imperial control and competed
with Arabs. The historian Tabari recorded that in 523 CE persecutions
killed many Christians. In response to this, Abyssinia sent an
army led by Aryat and Abraha that conquered Yemen in 525. Abraha
killed his superior Aryat in a duel and founded a capital at San'a.
That year the Kinda, led by al-Harith ibn 'Amr al-Kindi, drove
out the Lakhmid Mundhir III, capturing Hira; but the Kinda confederation
dissolved four years later, and the Sasanian ruler Khusrau I restored
Mundhir in Hira. However, the Lakhmid Mundhir surrendered Hira
to the attacking Ghassanids led by al-Harith ibn Jabala in 547.
Mundhir was finally killed in battle by the Ghassanids in 554.
Abyssinians invaded central Arabia in 535 and reached Hijaz in
570; but two years later the Sasanians drove them out of Yemen.
Ghassan lost the support of the Roman empire in 584, and a Sasanian
governor replaced the Lakhm kingdom in 602.

The ethics of the Arab tribes emphasized honor, independence,
generosity, vendetta (th'ar), and manly courage (muruwa).
Bereaved relatives from the violence affected the tribe, and often
young men would often practice ascetic self-discipline until they
gained revenge; then the retaliatory murders would be celebrated
by drinking.

Muhammad in Mecca

In 570 after a Kinana man defiled a cathedral in San'a that
had been built to draw pilgrims away from Mecca, the Abyssinian
ruler of Yemen, Abraha, attacked Mecca with an army. According
to tradition the elephant at the head of that army refused to
march on the holy city. That year Muhammad was born in Mecca,
where his paternal grandfather 'Abd al-Muttalib had the honored
position of providing water from the Zamzam well for the pilgrims
to the Ka'ba, founded according to tradition by the Hebrew patriarch
Abraham. Muhammad was the first child of his father 'Abd Allah,
who died before his wife Amina had her child. 'Abd Allah left
his son five camels, a flock of goats, and the slave-girl Baraka.
Since Mecca was considered unhealthy for infants, his mother Amina
took the baby out into the desert, where he was nursed by a Bedouin
named Halima for two years until he was weaned. Thus Muhammad
first learned the Arabic language of the Bani Sa'd. His foster
brother saw two men in white put their hands into the heart of
the child; concerned that he might be possessed by an evil spirit,
Halima returned Muhammad to his mother at Mecca.

When he was six, Muhammad and the slave girl Baraka accompanied
Amina on a visit to Medina; but on the return journey Muhammad's
mother became ill and died. Baraka brought the boy back to his
grandfather in Mecca; but two years later 'Abd al-Muttalib also
died at the age of 80. Muhammad was then raised by his uncle Abu
Talib and his wife Fatima. Later the prophet said that Fatima
would have let her own children starve rather than him. 'Abd al-Muttalib's
youngest son al 'Abbas took charge of the Zamzam well.

Muhammad spent his youth mostly pasturing sheep and goats.
He once went on a caravan to Bostra in Syria and was noted by
the Christian hermit Bahira. In Mecca a sacrilegious war occurred
after a treacherous murder. In the earlier battles Muhammad was
too young to fight, but he gathered enemy arrows and gave them
to his Quraysh uncles to shoot back. In the last battle when he
was about twenty, Muhammad did shoot arrows for the Hashim clan
at the enemy and was praised for his valor. When a Sahmi refused
to pay his debt to a Yemeni merchant, the Quraysh joined the Kinana
and others in taking an oath at the Ka'ba to fight oppression
for the sake of justice, and Muhammad swore with them; the Sahmi
was compelled to pay the debt.

Muhammad began traveling for merchants, and he wished to marry
his cousin; but his uncle Abu Talib informed him that she was
promised to a poet of better means. Known for being trustworthy
and honest, Muhammad was asked by the wealthy widow Khadija to
sell her merchandise in Bostra. She doubled her money, and Muhammad
was well paid. Although she was 40, Khadija proposed marriage
to the 25-year-old Muhammad; he accepted and gave her a dowry
of twenty camels. She was the mother of all his children except
Ibrahim. Their sons died in infancy, but their four daughters
would become Muslims. On his wedding day Muhammad freed his slave
Baraka so that she could marry a man of Yathrib, and Khadija gave
Muhammad her 15-year-old slave boy Zayd. When Zayd's father and
uncle came to ransom him, Muhammad offered the youth his free
choice. Zayd decided to live with Muhammad, who adopted him as
his son and made him his heir. During a famine Muhammad adopted
Abu Talib's son 'Ali when he was about five. When Muhammad was
about 35, he was asked to mediate a dispute over which tribe should
lift the sacred black meteorite when the Ka'ba temple was being
rebuilt. The trusted sage suggested that each clan take hold of
a garment and lift it together.

Every year Muhammad would pray in seclusion during the month
of Ramadan. When he was forty in 610, he began to have visions
during his spiritual retreat. While he was in a cave, a voice
told Muhammad three times to recite. His first revelation spoke
of the most beneficent Lord, who created humans and taught them
what they did not know. As he was walking down the mountain, the
voice identifying itself as Gabriel told Muhammad he was the messenger
of God. He first told his wife Khadija, and she spoke to her cousin
Waraqa, who confirmed his prophetic experience. Waraqa added that
Muhammad would be called a liar, be ill-treated, banished, and
made an enemy in war. According to tradition Khadija concluded
Muhammad's vision must be an angel and not a Satan when she exposed
herself to her husband, and Muhammad said he departed. Muhammad
became distressed when he did not have any more revelations for
a while; but then he was told that the Lord would give to him
and reminded him that as an orphan he was given refuge; when he
went astray, he was guided; when he was poor, he was made rich.
Thus the message was revealed that the orphan should not be oppressed
nor the beggar repelled. He should teach about the kindness of
God.

Muhammad was ordered to pray, and he established the manner
of praying and the times for daily prayer. God may be magnified
by proclaiming, "God is the greatest," and the final
greeting was "Peace be on you." Each revelation begins
by affirming that God is gracious and loving. After his wife,
the first to accept Islam were his adopted sons 'Ali and Zayd.
Islam is the name of the religion of the Muslims, which means
those who submit to God. Then the respected merchant Abu Bakr
became a Muslim and began telling his trusted friends about Muhammad's
teachings. Khalid, the son of a powerful Shamsite, consulted Abu
Bakr about a dream with Muhammad and secretly joined. Khalid later
was beaten and imprisoned without food by his father, who disowned
him when he escaped. Muhammad now had many revelations, and he
would share them with those present. Abu Bakr converted many people,
and Muhammad was told to warn his family. About forty people of
the Hashim clan were invited to a banquet; but his one suspicious
uncle, Abu Lahab, dispersed them with fears of a spell. Another
banquet was held the next day, and Muhammad told them what God
commanded him, asking who would help him. When no one else spoke,
the 13-year-old 'Ali said that he would be his helper. So Muhammad
proclaimed 'Ali his successor.

Once when Muhammad and his companions were praying in a glen,
some pagans interrupted them. In the disturbance Sa'd wounded
one of the pagans with a camel's jawbone. Since the revelations
told them to be patient, the Muslims decided to refrain from violence
at that time. At first the Quraysh had tolerated the new religion
until Muhammad began to criticize their gods and religion. Then
some leading men went to the clan chief Abu Talib, asking him
to restrain his nephew. When these men threatened to fight both
of them, Abu Talib went to Muhammad and asked him not to give
him a burden greater than he could bear. Muhammad swore that he
would not abandon his course unless he died. His uncle tearfully
promised not to forsake him. Next the influential Walid advised
the pagans to accuse Muhammad of sorcery and warn people of that.
After Muhammad converted Abu Dharr of the robbing Bani Ghifar
tribe, he would give a caravan back their goods he had taken if
they would acknowledge the oneness of God and the prophecy of
Muhammad.

The Quraysh tried to stop Muhammad's movement by sending the
intelligent Utba, who offered him wealth, honor, kingship, or
a physician if he was possessed. Muhammad's response was that
Utba should bow down and worship God. Utba was impressed by the
prophet's words and advised the Quraysh not to interfere with
his work. They sent nobles, and again Muhammad refused their offers.
They asked him to prove that he was the messenger of God by doing
something that would make their life easier. Muhammad replied
that he was not sent for that but to warn and bring good news.
So the Quraysh leaders declared that they would not leave him
in peace until either he or they were destroyed. Muhammad preached
that the lower life of gaining wealth in business or power in
politics was a diverting game compared to the life of the hereafter.
When some Quraysh consulted Jewish rabbis in Yathrib, they posed
three difficult questions for the prophet to answer. Muhammad
promised to tell them the next day but neglected to say, "If
God wills it." Fifteen days went by before the anxious Muhammad
was given an uncanny revelation that showed the Jews he had gained
extraordinary knowledge not readily available. Muhammad and others
also learned that he personally could not control the revelations.

The Quraysh began to persecute poor Muslims. When the slave
Bilal had a large rock put on his chest, he repeated the word
"One." Waraqa saw Bilal and said he would build a shrine
for him if he died; but Abu Bakr traded one of his slaves in order
to set Bilal free. Abu Bakr had already freed six slaves for the
sake of Islam, and he also bought and freed a slave girl who was
being beaten for her belief. Abu Jahl aroused Meccans against
the Muslims. If a man of importance became a Muslim, he reprimanded
him for forsaking his religion and threatened to ruin his reputation.
If the convert was a merchant, he said he would make him poor
by boycotting his goods. If the person was from a lower class,
Abu Jahl would beat him and incite people against him. Many clans
were now persecuting the Muslims in various ways by imprisonment
and other torments to make them renounce their new religion.

Seeing these afflictions, Muhammad suggested that the Muslims
would be better tolerated in Abyssinia, and 82 men with women
and children migrated there. They were welcomed by the Negus and
allowed to practice their religion. Then the Quraysh sent gifts
to the generals of the Negus, asking him to give them up; but
he said he would not surrender them until he had questioned them.
Abu Talib's son Ja'far explained how a trustworthy apostle of
God summoned them to acknowledge God's unity, renounce idols,
speak the truth, be faithful, be kind, and refrain from crimes.
After they were treated unjustly and oppressed, they decided to
emigrate to Abyssinia. Ja'far quoted a recent revelation that
Jesus was a slave and
messenger of God. The Negus found their teachings similar to those
of Jesus and declared
he would never give them up but would protect them. He gave back
the gifts, saying that he gave no bribe to God for his kingdom.

The Muslims gained a strong advocate when Abu Jahl's nephew
'Umar joined their faith. At first 'Umar was determined to kill
Muhammad; but Nu'aym persuaded him to go first to the converts
of his own house. 'Umar fought with them and even caused his sister
Fatima to bleed. Then he was sorry and asked to borrow a surah
from the Qur'an, which greatly impressed him. 'Umar and
Hamza then insisted that the Muslims be allowed to pray in the
Ka'ba. Now Abu Jahl and the Quraysh decided to boycott the Hashim
clan, because all of them except Abu Lahab were protecting Muhammad.
They placed a document in the Ka'ba that no one should trade with
or marry anyone in the Hashim or Muttalib clans, since the Muttalib
had refused to abandon their Hashimi cousins. Once when Abu Jahl
was interfering with the trading of flour to Khadija's nephew
Hakim, Abu l-Bakhatari clubbed Abu Jahl with a camel's jawbone
even though neither he nor Hakim were Muslims.

Now that Muhammad was well protected, the attacks of the Quraysh
were mostly verbal. Abu Jahl told the apostle that if he did not
stop cursing their gods, they would curse his God. So Muhammad
was given a revelation not to curse those who don't pray to God
lest they curse God out of ignorance. Muhammad tried to be more
amenable to the Quraysh and their gods, and word reached Abyssinia
that the Quraysh had accepted Islam. Gabriel then reprimanded
his apostle for allowing Satan to interject something into his
desires. God warned that some prophets allow Satan to cast suggestions
into their longing; then God must annul what Satan suggested.
However, when Muhammad corrected his statement about their gods,
the polytheists became more hostile to the Muslims. Some in Abyssinia
heard the rumor and returned to Mecca before they learned that
it was false. The boycott diminished the resources of the two
clans so much in two years that many Hashimis and Muttalibs faced
starvation, and Abu Bakr's wealth had been depleted providing
needed food and clothing. Finally Zuhayr made a speech at the
Ka'ba, and the Quraysh voted to lift the punitive ban.

In 619 Muhammad's wife Khadija died; she had been his closest
confidant. Then his uncle Abu Talib became ill and died, leaving
the prophet and his clan with questionable protection, since Abu
Talib was succeeded by Abu Lahab. One day Abu Bakr and Talha were
left roped together by a public highway. Abu Bakr was going to
migrate to Abyssinia; but ibn ad-Dughunnah offered protection,
though the Quraysh warned that Abu Bakr should not pray or recite
in public. When someone threw a filthy sheep's uterus into his
yard, Muhammad asked what kind of protection was that. Another
threw dirt on his head as he walked home from the Ka'ba. So Muhammad
turned to the people of Ta'if, but they insulted him so much he
had to take refuge in a private orchard. For tribal reasons neither
the Akhnas nor the Suhayl would protect him. However, the Nawfal
chief Mut'im offered to do so, and armed men escorted Muhammad
back into Mecca.

While visiting the family of Abu Talib's widow Fatima, Muhammad
went out at night to pray at the Ka'ba. That night the prophet
traveled with Gabriel to Jerusalem to pray in the temple with
Abraham, Moses, Jesus,
and others. He drank from a vessel of milk and rejected the wine.
He was told this symbolized his right guidance of his people.
He was instructed to pray fifty times a day; but at the urging
of Moses he got this reduced to five times. From the heavenly
realms they descended to the Rock in Jerusalem, and from there
Gabriel and Muhammad returned to Mecca. His future wife 'A'isha
said, "The apostle's body remained where it was, but God
removed his spirit by night."1 His description of this experience
was greeted with mockery by many, though Abu Bakr supported him
and was given the name as-Siddiq, meaning "great confirmer
of the truth."

The next year during the pilgrimage Muhammad went to the valley
of Mina, and at 'Aqaba twelve men of Yathrib, expecting a prophet
because of what their neighboring Jews told them, pledged to Muhammad
they would keep God pure of associations, not steal, not commit
adultery, not kill their children, not slander their neighbors,
and not disobey him in what is right. If they fulfilled these,
they would gain paradise; but sins would be punished or forgiven
as God pleased. When the leader Sa'd accepted the new prophet,
everyone in his clan became Muslims. Then 73 men and two women
from Yathrib made the pilgrimage, hoping to meet Muhammad. With
this group a second pact was made at 'Aqaba in which they pledged
to protect each other by even going to war. After this the previous
pledge was only used for women, who did not have the duty to fight
in battle. Muhammad now received a revelation giving permission
for those who have been wronged to fight, and God would help those
who were being driven out of their homes only because they believed
in one God.

Many Muslims began migrating from Mecca to Medina. When 'Ayyash
returned to Islam after renouncing his new faith, 'Umar believed
that no atonement was possible for this sin; but Muhammad received
a revelation that God is all-forgiving and all-merciful and that
everyone should repent and surrender to God before they are punished.
After the prophet's protector Mut'im died, Abu Lahab did not attend
the Quraysh meeting when Abu Jahl proposed that chosen men from
every clan should murder Muhammad to spread the guilt and make
revenge unlikely. Muhammad was warned, and 'Ali slept in his bed
while the prophet and Abu Bakr hid in a cave for three days, a
spider's web preventing their being found. The Quraysh offered
a reward of one hundred camels for Muhammad's capture. The prophet
bought a camel from Abu Bakr, and they rode to Medina. Muhammad
arrived on September 27, 622 at the oasis of Quba, where he had
the first mosque of Islam built from an old date store. In Medina
Muhammad's camel led him to a house, which he bought even though
it was offered as a gift. 'Ali stayed behind for three days to
return property that had been entrusted to Muhammad; then he joined
the prophet in Medina.

Muhammad in Medina at War 622-628

Muhammad praised God in his preaching as he urged people to
take refuge in God from their evil actions. They should love God
with all their hearts and love what God loves. God chooses and
selects from everything created. The lawful must be distinguished
from the unlawful. What they say they should carry out in action.
They should love one another, because God is angry when God's
covenant is broken. Muhammad wrote a document affirming that the
Muslims of Quraysh and Tathrib are one community against the rebellious
and those who spread injustice. A believer should not kill a believer
for the sake of an unbeliever. Jews who follow them shall be treated
with equality and helped, and believers fighting for God should
not make a separate peace. The apostle called on believers to
avenge blood shed in the way of God. Anyone convicted of killing
a believer shall be subject to retaliation or blood money for
the next of kin. Believers should not help wrong-doers. Any differences
should be submitted to God and Muhammad. Thus the Muslims and
Jews became one community, respecting each other's religions.
The wronged were to be helped, and the Jews were expected to contribute
as long as the war lasted.

When the Aws and Khazraj were about to fight over differences
concerned with their poetry, Muhammad was able to help them see
their unity and embrace each other. The prophet named the Muslims
of Medina Helpers and called the Quraysh Emigrants, and he suggested
that each Emigrant have a Helper brother. In his own family, however,
instead of choosing someone from Medina, he made 'Ali his brother
and Hamza the brother of Zayd. Instead of using a wooden clapper
to call Muslims to prayer, Muhammad accepted the guidance in a
dream from a Khazraj man that a man in green should call, "God
is the greatest" four times and then say twice, "I testify
there is no deity but God and that Muhammad is the messenger of
God. Come to prayer; come to salvation. God is the greatest. There
is no deity but God." The former slave Bilal became the first
to perform this call.

Muhammad became concerned that some Jews and those he called
hypocrites opposed him. When rabbis and Christians asked if he
expected them to worship him as the Christians worship Jesus,
Muhammad forbade that anyone but God should be worshipped, because
no mortal, not even a prophet, should say to people, "Worship
me instead of God."2 When Jews tested him to see if he would
follow their law of stoning for adultery, Muhammad ordered a guilty
couple stoned to death at the door of his mosque. When the mosque
was finished, Muhammad had two dwellings built on its eastern
wall - one for his wife Sawdah and one for 'A'isha, whom he then
married when she was nine years old. Muhammad had been praying
facing toward Jerusalem; but in Medina the Islamic practice of
facing Mecca during prayer was established.

The fighting permitted by Muhammad's revelation began with
a raid on Waddan. The apostle sent Hamza with thirty Emigrants
to the seashore, where they met 300 riders from Mecca led by Abu
Jahl; but the peacemaker Majdi intervened and prevented them from
fighting. Muhammad himself led raids on Buwat and al-'Ushayra.
He sent 'Abdullah ibn Jahsh, who attacked a Quraysh caravan on
the last day of a sacred month; one man was killed with an arrow,
and two were captured. At Medina they gave a fifth of the booty
to the apostle; but he refused to accept it because he had not
ordered them to fight in the sacred month. Muslims in Mecca, who
opposed them, and Jews took this attack as a bad omen. Muhammad
was told by a revelation that it was serious but that keeping
people from believing and driving them out of their homes was
even more serious, thus justifying it. The prophet then accepted
a fifth of the spoils for the community.

In 624 a large Quraysh caravan led by Abu Sufyan returning
from Syria was expected to stop at Badr. Muhammad with 77 Emigrants
and 231 Helpers went to attack it. In response the Quraysh organized
an army of about a thousand men. 'Utba tried to persuade the Quraysh
not to fight Muhammad and their relatives; but Abu Jahl taunted
him with cowardice and because one of 'Utba's sons was with their
enemy. The two armies met at a cistern; Aswad went to drink from
it and was killed by Hamza. 'Utba challenged the Muslims of their
tribe to a single combat and was joined by his brother Shayba
and his son Walid. Muhammad selected 'Ubayda, Hamza, and 'Ali,
who killed the other three, though 'Ubayda died of his wound.
Then two arrows from the Quraysh killed Muslims. Muhammad promised
his warriors who died fighting that they would enter Paradise,
and they charged shouting, "God's victors kill." The
Quraysh soon began to flee. Only 14 Muslims were killed that day,
while about fifty Quraysh were slain and about as many were taken
captive. The apostle ordered a search for Abu Jahl; when he was
found, he was beheaded. When Bilal saw his former owner, his shouting
caused others to kill the man and his son. Two of their worst
enemies were also put to death by the order of Muhammad. The rest
of the captives and spoils were shared equally by everyone on
the expedition.

In Mecca Abu Lahab became so angry at a Muslim slave, who said
that angels fought against the Quraysh, that he beat him until
his sister-in-law gashed his skull with a post. Abu Lahab died
after this wound became infected. Abu Sufyan still brought the
rich caravan safely into the city, and the assembly of Mecca used
the profits to raise a large army. The apostle revealed that a
woman Muslim could not be the wife of a pagan, and he expected
a released captive to send his Muslim wife Zaynab from Mecca to
Medina. Quraysh leaders stopped Zaynab from returning but let
her go secretly after the controversy died down. 'Umayr went to
the Medina mosque to kill the apostle, who allowed him to sit
down and told him his intention, causing 'Umayr to believe in
God and this messenger. Although God reproached him for taking
prisoners and spoils, Muhammad's revelation indicated that he
was the first prophet to be allowed this privilege.

A week after the battle at Badr Muhammad led a raid against
the Sulaym, which was followed by raids on al-Sawiq, Najd, and
Al-Firu. When a Muslim woman was insulted by a Jewish goldsmith,
a Helper killed the Jew and was then killed by Jews. His family
demanded vengeance instead of asking the apostle to settle the
issue. With their allies they raised an army of 700 and besieged
the Bani Qaynuqa Jews until they surrendered. The apostle granted
the Jews their lives but forced them into exile and divided the
rich weapons and armor of the metalworkers. Jews in Medina were
no longer secure after Muhammad said, "Kill any Jew that
falls into your power."3 Huwayissa complained when Muhayissa
killed a wealthy Jewish merchant with whom they had business and
social relations; but Muhayissa said he would even kill his friend
Huwayissa if the apostle ordered it. Huwayissa was so awed by
such a religion that he became a Muslim too. The apostle's youngest
daughter Fatima was twenty when she married 'Ali. Muhammad married
Hafsa, the young widowed daughter of 'Umar. At the mosque people
with no means or place to live were allowed to stay on the bench,
where food was provided for them from the apostle's household,
which consequently barely had enough to eat.

In the next few months Muhammad sent out forces to stop threatened
raids by the Sulaym and Ghatafan tribes. Once the prophet awoke
to find a man standing over him with a sword; but with the help
of the angel Gabriel he persuaded him to become a Muslim. Muhammad
allowed his followers to use deception during war, and the poet
Ka'b, who satirized the apostle, was lured out of his fortress
under false pretenses and treacherously killed. Muhammad sent
out a hundred horseman under Zayd, and they robbed a Meccan caravan
of all its transport camels with much silver and a few captives.

The apostle's uncle 'Abbas warned him that Abu Sufyan was leading
an army of 3,000 toward Medina. Their forces included 700 warriors
in mail armor and 200 cavalry led by Khalid ibn al-Walid. Although
Medinans advised that they were usually more victorious when they
defended their city instead of attacking, the youthful enthusiasm
of his warriors and those who wanted their crops protected urged
the apostle to order an attack with their 700 men on the large
Quraysh army at Uhud. The Meccan Talha challenged the Muslims
in single combat, and he was killed by 'Ali. Hamza then killed
Talhah's brother, and another brother and his four sons were cut
down by 'Ali and two others. The Muslims charged with ferocity
and were winning, though Hamza was killed by a javelin. After
Muslim archers advanced from their defensive position, the larger
army re-grouped, charged the Muslim forces, and pushed them back.
The prophet was wounded in the mouth by a sharp stone, and then
a sword blow drove two helmet rings into his cheek. A voice shouted,
"Muhammad is slain!" The Quraysh, believing they had
gained their objective, began to celebrate their victory; they
had lost only 22 dead but counted 65 Muslim corpses. Afterward
they learned that the prophet was alive; Abu Sufyan promised to
meet him again the next year, and Muhammad accepted the engagement.

After this defeat the revelations of Muhammad blamed it on
the archers, who gave up their position contrary to the prophet's
orders, and on those who fled while the apostle was calling on
them to stay and fight. Those who ran away must have been seduced
by Satan for some evil they had done. God had allowed them to
be defeated in order to test them, and now God forgave them. The
bodies of Hamza and other Muslims had been mutilated, and the
angry apostle said he would mutilate thirty Quraysh; but a revelation
warned him not to inflict more punishment than they had suffered
and suggested that enduring patiently was even better. So instead
Muhammad forbade mutilation after every battle, especially to
the face, the most godlike part of the human body. A few months
later warning came of a possible raid. So to show their continued
determination to fight, the apostle sent his cousin Abu Salamah
with 150 armed men to attack a Bedouin camp, and they returned
with a herd of camels and three herdsmen. The apostle sent a Khazraj
man to assassinate a hostile Hudhayl chief. In reaction some Hudhayl
men attacked six Muslims on a teaching mission, killing four and
executing the other two after they refused to renounce their religion.

After Muhammad married the widow Zaynab, the chief of her tribe,
Abu Bara, asked him for instructors; the apostle sent forty Muslims
led by Mundhir ibn 'Amr. Abu Bara's nephew challenged his leadership
and killed the first Muslim messenger. Most of the tribe supported
Abu Bara; but the nephew called in two clans of Sulaym, who massacred
the entire delegation of Muslim teachers in their camp except
for two men pasturing camels. These two killed two of the Bani
'Amir, who turned out to have been loyal to Abu Bara. So the prophet
paid blood-wite to their nearest relatives, and he asked the related
Bani Nadir Jews to contribute. When the apostle learned that these
Jews were plotting against him, he marched an army against their
forts and cut down their palm trees, while they asked him why
he did so since he prohibited wanton destruction. He argued that
it was vengeance from God to humble their evil-doers. The apostle
allowed the Bani Nadir to leave their land with all their rich
possessions except their arms and armor.

In the first year of their marriage Zaynab died of an illness,
and so the apostle married the beautiful widow Umm Salamah, stimulating
some jealousy in 'A'isha, who was now 14. Although previous revelation
had limited a Muslim to four wives, which Muhammad already had
(counting the two who died), after another Zaynab was divorced
from the apostle's adopted son Zayd, Muhammad said that God had
married her to him. Only the prophet was allowed to have more
than four wives; they were called mothers of the faithful, could
not marry anyone else after the prophet, and requests made to
them must be from behind a curtain. The prophet recommended spending
the day in three equal parts in worship, work, and family. The
family time included sleeping and meals. Much of his praying was
done at night. Muhammad kept his appointment at Badr, traveling
there with 1500 men; but Abu Sufyan did not want to fight in a
dry year and did not come.

In 627 the Bani Nadir Jews exiled in Khaybar went to the Quraysh
to join them in their fight against Muhammad. The Jews got the
Bani Asad to help and promised the Bani Ghatafan half their date
harvest at Khaybar if they would join the alliance. The Ghatafan
clans brought about 2,000 men including 300 on horses. With 4,000
Quraysh and the other allies, the total neared 10,000 with 600
cavalry. Salman, based on his experience in Persia, advised a
trench as a defense against a cavalry attack, and so the apostle
oversaw and worked with the others in building a trench around
Medina. The Muslims had an army of about 3,000 and were besieged
by the larger force for nearly a month. 'Ali accepted a challenge
and killed 'Amr. The apostle offered the Ghatafan chiefs half
of Medina's date harvest if they would withdraw from the siege,
but he was persuaded to change his mind by the wounded Sa'd.

The Ghatafan Nu'aym came and told the apostle he had secretly
become a Muslim. Muhammad asked him to draw off the enemy and
gave him permission to lie, "for war is deception."4
Nu'aym told the Qurayza that their allies would abandon them to
the Muslims after the battle, suggesting they ask for hostages.
Then he went to the Quraysh leaders and told them that the Qurayza
were planning on asking for hostages so that they could kill them
and be on the Muslims' side. When the Quraysh asked the Qurayza
to fight, they said it was the Sabbath and asked for hostages.
After a miserable wind storm Abu Sufyan led the Quraysh away because
the Qurayza had broken their word. When the Ghatafans saw the
Quraysh leaving, they went home too.

Muhammad was immediately commanded by Gabriel to march against
the Qurayza, because they broke the treaty; within a few hours
'Ali was leading the Muslim army of 3,000 in the hot sun. The
Qurayza were then besieged for 25 days before they submitted to
the prophet and opened the gates. Men were bound; women and children
were gathered; arms, armor, and household goods were collected;
and wine and alcoholic date juice were poured out by the abstinent
Muslims. The Qurayza agreed to be judged by Sa'd, an Aws chief,
who ordered the men executed, the women and children made captives,
and the property divided. About 700 Qurayza men were beheaded
with swords and buried in a trench. From the captive women the
apostle selected the beautiful Rayhana as his slave.

A few months later the Muslims made two successful raids on
Quraysh caravans, capturing about 200 families, 2,000 camels,
and 5,000 sheep and goats. After the raid on Mustaliq the apostle
married the captured Juwayriya and released a hundred families
in honor of the wedding. When his young wife 'A'isha lost her
necklace and did not ride on her camel, gossip spread among the
Muslims. Eventually the prophet received a revelation that she
was innocent; flogging was prescribed for adultery and slander.
In this case the three who had spread the false rumor were given
eighty lashes each.

Muhammad Triumphant 628-632

After spending Ramadan in Medina fasting, the apostle dreamed
he entered the Ka'ba with his head shaved. He decided to make
a pilgrimage in March 628, and with his companions they bought
seventy camels for sacrifice. He went unarmed, relying on the
sacred hospitality of Mecca. The Quraysh sent Khalid with 200
horsemen to confront the Muslims; but their guide took them on
a different route to Hudaybiya on the border of the sacred territory.
Negotiations resulted in a treaty calling for a ten-year truce;
but the Muslims could not enter Mecca until the next year. The
apostle ordered his companions to sacrifice the camels and shave
their heads, which they eagerly did after Muhammad was the first
to do so. A revelation pronounced the truce a clear victory, and
in the next two years the community of Islam more than doubled.
The apostle married Umm Habiba, a widow whose husband had migrated
to Abyssinia and then reverted to Christianity, while she remained
a Muslim. The apostle sent messages to Badhan, the Persian viceroy
in Yemen, to the Persian emperor Khusrau, to Emperor Heraclius
by way of the Syrian governor, and to the Egyptian patriarch in
Alexandria. Gabriel informed the prophet that Khusrau had been
killed in an uprising and that his son now ruled; the prophet
sent this information to Badhan, who accepted Islam when he discovered
it was true.

The truce with Mecca enabled Muhammad to march against the
powerful Khaybar Jews in the north. Khaybar leader Kinana promised
the Ghatafan half their date harvest for the year, and they agreed
to send 4,000 men. This with the 10,000 Jews armed for Khaybar
gave them a large army against 1600 invading Muslims; but the
apostle attacked their forts one by one, gaining weapons from
one fort recommended by a spy they caught. The Bani Ghatafan were
said to have heard a strange voice and returned to their homes.
The last stronghold of the Kinana family at Qamus held out for
two weeks before negotiating an agreement that none would be put
to death or made captive. The prophet agreed as long as they did
not conceal their possessions. Families that did hide treasure
were later made captives. The apostle prohibited carnal intercourse
with pregnant women, eating domestic donkeys or any carnivorous
animal, and selling spoils before they were duly distributed.

Most of the spoils of Khaybar were equally divided among the
1400 Muslims except that 200 horseman got double; but Katiba went
in five parts to God, the prophet, the prophet's wives, the diplomats
to Fadak, and one-fifth to relatives, orphans, and the poor. Muhammad
gained the slave Safiyah and set her free when she converted to
Islam and married him. The Jews of Khaybar were permitted to work
their lands in exchange for surrendering half their crops to the
Muslims; the Jews of Fadak and Wadi l-Qura made similar terms.
Fadak became the private property of Muhammad, because it was
gained without attack. A woman tried to poison the apostle with
roast lamb; but he spit it out, though a companion died. Now the
Muslims had to protect the Jews from the Bedouins. After most
of thirty Muslims were killed, the apostle had to send a force
of 200.

The patriarch of Alexandria responded to the apostle's letter
by sending him treasure and two slave girls. Muhammad kept Mariya,
and his frequent visits to her made his wives jealous. The Muslims
based their right to take concubines on the tradition that they
were descended from Abraham and his bond-maid Hagar. Muhammad
gave in to pressure and swore he would not see Mariya anymore;
but a revelation defended his right and warned his wives he could
divorce and replace them all if they were not submissive. In 629
the apostle went on pilgrimage, encircling the Ka'ba seven times,
sacrificing a camel, and shaving his head. Then Bilal made the
Muslim call to prayer, proclaiming Muhammad the messenger of God.
After three days the apostle departed when the Meccans refused
to let him wed his wife's sister Maymuna there. Later Mecca leaders
'Amr, Khalid, and 'Uthman traveled to Medina to pledge their allegiance
to the apostle. After 14 peaceful messengers of Islam were killed
on the border of Syria, the apostle sent an army of 3,000 led
by Zayd, Ja'far, and 'Abd Allah ibn Rawaha. At Mu'tah all three
leaders were killed, but only five other Muslims died, as Khalid
took command. When 'Amr was sent with 500 reinforcements and crossed
the Syrian border, the Syrians dispersed.

When a Bakr clan made a raid against Khuza'a, the Bani Ka'b
informed the apostle that one or two Quraysh had fought against
them. Meccans sent Abu Sufyan to the apostle to try to strengthen
or renew the truce; but Muhammad merely said the Muslims were
keeping the truce. Yet he told Abu Bakr that the Quraysh had broken
the pact, and they secretly prepared to march against Mecca. 700
hundred Emigrants, 4,000 Helpers, and other tribes bringing the
total army to 10,000 including 900 cavalry of the Bani Sulaym
marched with the apostle without knowing their objective. When
they camped near Mecca, Abu Sufyan came out and acknowledged the
apostle as a prophet, asking for mercy on the Meccans. The apostle
declared that whoever entered the house of Abu Sufyan would be
safe, as would those who stayed indoors or entered the Mosque.
When Abu Sufyan told the Meccans this, most stayed inside; but
'Ikrima, Safwan, and Suhayl gathered a small force on a mountain.
They were defeated by Khalid's troops; 'Ikrima and Safwan fled
on horses while Suhayl went into his house.

Muhammad had ordered his men not to fight anyone except those
who resisted. When the apostle entered Mecca, 'Abbas gave him
a drink from the Zamzam well, and he confirmed the traditional
right of the Hashim sons to give water to pilgrims; but he gave
right over the key to another family. The idols in the temple
were broken, and the icons were defaced except for one of the
Virgin Mary and the child Jesus
and another of Abraham. At the noon prayer the idols around the
Ka'ba were burned, and everyone in Mecca was ordered to destroy
the idols in their houses. Khalid was sent to destroy the pagan
temple at nearby Nakhla. Almost all the Meccans entered Islam
except Suhayl. Safwan was given four months to decide, and Ikrima
became a Muslim upon entering a ship and returned. Muhammad ordered
put to death one apostate and two girls who used to sing songs
satirizing the apostle.

The apostle sent out troops around Mecca as missionaries, not
to fight; but Khalid conquered the Bani Jadhima and killed some
of them. After the Muslims had been in Mecca two weeks, the Hawazin
had gathered an army of 20,000 in the valley north of Ta'if. The
apostle added 2,000 Meccans to his army of 10,000 and borrowed
a hundred coats of mail from Safwan. The Nasr Malik led the Hawazin
and brought their women, children, and cattle in the rear of their
army so that his warriors would fight with more determination.
In the battle the Bani Sulaym cavalry began to flee, scattering
the Meccans; but Muhammad rallied his warriors, and the Muslims
were victorious. Many of the Hawazin were killed, and the rest
fled to the hills; 6,000 of their women and children were captured
along with 24,000 camels and countless sheep and goats.

The apostle's army besieged Thaqif with engines of war to no
avail. After Muhammad started destroying their vineyards, he announced
that slaves who joined the Muslims would be freed; twenty slaves
escaped from Thaqif, telling the Muslims the Ta'if had food for
a year. After a month the holy months would begin, and so the
siege was abandoned. The Muslims went to Ji'rana, where the Hawazin
spoils were divided. From a fifth the apostle had to provide for
the poor, set free slaves and captives, relieve debtors, and help
those whose hearts needed reconciling. The apostle had waited
and had not heard from the Hawazin leaders until after the division;
then he asked the Muslims to return the women and children to
their men. The Helpers criticized the apostle for giving generous
grants to sixteen influential Quraysh leaders and four chiefs
of other tribes, because they were already wealthy. When Muhammad
told the Helpers that he would choose them over all others, they
wept and accepted the prophet as the best portion. The apostle
suggested that whoever killed the poet Ka'b ibn Malik would be
serving God; but he relented when the poet converted and turned
his verse to the worship of God. Mariya bore Muhammad his only
child since his first wife Khadija died.

In October 630 the apostle told his warriors to prepare for
a campaign against the Byzantine Syrians. With the Bedouins his
army now had 30,000 with 10,000 horses. He left 'Ali behind with
his family and reassured him that he would be as Aaron to Moses. The apostle did not find many
enemies at Tabuk and made peace treaties with Christian and Jewish
communities along the east coast of the Gulf of 'Aqaba. The last
pagan stronghold was the Bani Thaqif at Ta'if; but as they were
now surrounded by Muslims, they sent envoys to ask the apostle
to let them keep their goddess al-Lat for a time. The apostle
would only let them off from destroying the shrine themselves
and insisted they offer the Muslim prayers, for no good religion
can exist without prayer. During this year many other tribes sent
delegations to the prophet, and agreements were made for collecting
taxes for their protection by the emerging Islamic state. Once
the prophet asked Thabit of Khazraj, a Helper, to respond to a
deputation, and he said,

We are God's helpers and the assistants of
His apostle

and will fight men until they believe in God;

and he who believes in God and His apostle

has protected his life and property from us;

and he who disbelieves we will fight in God unceasingly,

and killing him will be a small matter to us."5

The apostle sent out his officials to collect the poor tax
in every district subject to Islam.

At the next pilgrimage the apostle announced that this would
be the last year that would allow going around the Holy House
naked and idolatrous pilgrims. After four months there would be
war against any remaining idolaters, though treaties with the
apostle would be honored until they expired. The apostle preached
that they should not wrong, and they shall not be wronged. He
said that God decreed there shall be no usury, and he abolished
all the usury of his uncle 'Abbas. All blood shed in the pagan
period was to be left unavenged. He said that husbands have the
right to beat their wives, but not severely, if they defile their
bed or behave in an unseemly manner. Wives have the right to food
and clothing with kindness. Wives should be treated kindly, because
they are prisoners given in trust by God. Adulterers are to be
stoned. The apostle's son Ibrahim died when he was about two years
old. The prophet was reminded that we are only passing strangers
in this world. 'Ali summed it up by saying that we should act
in this world as though we are going to live forever but for the
next as though we are going to die tomorrow. Tabuk was the last
battle in which Muhammad participated; but he continued to send
out his forces on raids.

Many of the sayings from Muhammad's informal conversations
were later written down. He admonished his friends to feed the
hungry, visit the sick, and free the captives who are unjustly
bound. He considered anyone holding a monopoly an offender and
cursed those who kept back grain in order to sell it at a higher
price. In war he warned his men not to kill women, children, nor
old men who cannot fight. He advised judges not to make decisions
when they are angry. One who controls anger is stronger than one
who throws people down. The apostle once said that a virtuous
woman is the most valuable thing in the world; yet he also said
that no calamity can be more hurtful to a man than a woman. He
believed the best women were content with little. Divorce was
lawful; but it was disliked by God. A widow should not be married
without consulting her, and a virgin must give her silent consent.
The apostle said that slavery was ordained by God; but one must
give these brothers and sisters the same food one eats oneself
and the same clothes one wears; if one orders a slave to do something
beyond his power, one must help him in doing it.

Muhammad opposed paintings except those of trees and things
without souls. He advised against speaking of the dead, because
they have gone to the reward of their actions. He considered obedience
a Muslim duty unless one is ordered to commit a sin. Al-Muttaqi
also reported that Muhammad said,

The nearer a man is to government, the further
he is from God;

the more followers he has, the more devils;

the greater his wealth, the more exacting his reckoning.6

Assassination attempts on the life of the prophet failed. Abu
Bakr taught new Muslims to proclaim the unity of God, perform
prayer, pay the poor-tax, fast during Ramadan, go on a pilgrimage,
wash after impurity, and never assume authority over two Muslims.
The prophet advised his followers not to obey anyone who orders
them to do something wrong. The apostle sometimes differentiated
degrees of holiness, and he said that the one remembering God
is more excellent than the one who wields his sword against the
infidels until it is broken and bloody. The first pilgrimage in
which no pagans would be allowed to participate was the last pilgrimage
to Mecca for the apostle. From Medina came 30,000 men and women.
He exhorted them to treat each other well. He had given them the
book of God called the Qur'an, and the prophet now recited
his last revelation to be added to that book, telling them not
to fear the disbelievers but God, because their religion has prevailed.
Other prophets began to proclaim themselves. When one wrote to
the apostle as Musaylima the messenger of God, Muhammad wrote
back calling him Musaylima the Liar. After a few months the pride
of Aswad ibn Ka'b of Yemen caused his own followers to assassinate
him, and Asad chief Tulayha was defeated by Khalid, renounced
his claim, and surrendered to Islam.

As he neared death from illness the apostle sent Zayd's son
Usamah with an army of 3,000 against the Arabs who had fought
with the Syrians against them. In the mosque the apostle announced
that a prophet is given a choice between this world and the next,
and Abu Bakr realized that Muhammad had chosen the next life.
The apostle affirmed Abu Bakr as his closest friend, and he ordered
all the doors to the mosque walled up except the door of Abu Bakr.
The prophet was no longer afraid that they would set up other
gods, but he did fear that they would seek to rival one another
in worldly gains. Muhammad now had eleven wives; but he spent
his last days in 'A'ishah's apartment, and he instructed Abu Bakr
to lead the prayers. On June 8, 632 the apostle's last words before
he died referred to supreme communion with God. In the mosque
Abu Bakr announced that Muhammad was dead; but for those who wanted
to worship God, truly God is living and immortal.

Some Muslims, mostly Helpers, wanted to make the Sa'ida chief
Sa'd the new authority; but Emigrants led by 'Umar and Abu 'Ubayda
pledged their allegiance to Abu Bakr, who thanked God and asked
their help if he did well and their correction if he did wrong.
He promised to strengthen the rights of the weak against the strong.
He asked them to obey him as long he obeyed God and his messenger,
and they prayed.

Qur'an and Hadith

The sacred book of Islam is the Qur'an, which means
The Recital. Although Muhammad was probably illiterate
himself, this scripture is considered one of the finest works
of literature. Muhammad would recite the verses; they were memorized
and written down. The final text was completed within a generation
of his death. For the most part God is speaking to Muhammad and
humanity, though occasionally the messengers Gabriel and Muhammad
speak. There are 114 chapters, placed in order of decreasing length,
and each begins with the words "In the name of God, the gracious,
the loving." The exordium at the beginning praises and worships
God alone, asking for guidance on a straight and blessed path.
God is recording all of everyone's deeds and will judge them.
Many verses warn against the fires of hell or give metaphorical
descriptions of the paradise that will reward belief in God and
good deeds. Those who give charity and guard against evil and
believe in goodness will have a smooth path to salvation; but
the opposite will find affliction, and their riches will not help
them. God warns those who do not show kindness to orphans or feed
the poor, who greedily grab the inheritance of the weak and love
riches in their hearts.

Muhammad retold in his own way several stories from the Old
and New Testaments of the Judeo-Christian Bible, "the
people of the book." These include Adam, Noah, Abraham, Lot,
Joseph, Moses, David,
Solomon, Elijah, Jonah, Job, Zacharias,
Mary, and Jesus, and are
recounted to encourage the believers with true precepts and admonitions.
The 74th chapter warns that every soul will be pledged for what
it has earned, except for the companions on the right, who will
ask the sinners what brought them to hell; they shall reply that
they did not pray nor feed the hungry, and they engaged in vain
disputes while denying a day of reckoning. Use of plural probably
implies that God and Gabriel are speaking together, as when they
declare that they know everything that humans do and think, and
it is all recorded in a book.

According to chapter 61 of the Qur'an God loves those
who fight for His cause, and listeners are encouraged to fight
with their wealth and persons for God and His apostle. Those who
participate in the fighting or give their wealth before the victory
will have greater honor than those who do so afterwards. This
life is referred to as a sport or pastime, questing for greater
riches and children; but in the life to come await woeful punishments
or a vast paradise for those who gain the pardon and grace of
God. The speakers in the Qur'an claim they gave Jesus
his Gospel
and put mercy and compassion in the hearts of his followers; but
they did not enjoin monasticism, which was instituted by people
seeking to please God; many of them are called wrong-doers. In
chapter 47 called "Muhammad," people are instructed,

When you meet the unbelievers in the battlefield,

strike off their heads, and,

when you have laid them low, bind your captives firmly.

Then grant them their freedom or take ransom from them,

until War shall lay down her armor.

Thus shall you do.

Had God willed, He could Himself have punished them;

but He has ordained it thus that He might test you, the one by
the other.

As for those who are slain in the cause of God,

He will not allow their works to perish.

He will vouchsafe them guidance and ennoble their state;

He will admit them to the Paradise He has made known to them.

Believers, if you help God, God will help you and make you strong.

But the unbelievers shall be consigned to perdition.7

Those who disbelieve and bar others from God's path and die
unbelievers shall not be forgiven by God. Thus believers are told
not to sue for peace when they have the upper hand, because God
is on their side and will reward them. Another chapter states
that God created the heavens and the earth to reveal the truth
and reward each soul according to its deeds, and none shall be
wronged.

In this world lighter punishments are inflicted so that people
may return to the right path; but the world to come brings supreme
punishment, according to the Qur'an. Warnings of punishments
at the Day of Judgment are repeated over and over. The listener
is advised to give their due to relatives, to the needy, and to
wayfarers. Those who seek to gain by usury will not be blessed
by God; but charity will be multiplied and repaid. Prayer fends
off indecency and evil, and one's foremost duty is to remember
God. Muslims are admonished to be courteous when arguing with
the people of the Bible (Jews and Christians). The golden mean
between being extravagant or niggardly is recommended. One must
not kill humans, though exception is made for a just cause. Adultery
may double one's punishment on the Day of Judgment. Those who
repent and do good works may have their sins changed to good actions
by God, who is forgiving and merciful. One must not give false
testimony, and believers are advised not to lose their dignity
when listening to profane abuse.

Chapter 24 called "Light," given after the 'A'isha
scandal, set the penalty for adultery at 100 lashes, and believers
are forbidden from marrying adulterers or idolaters. False testimony
was to be punished with 80 lashes. Women are to be chaste and
cover their adornments, drawing a veil over their bosoms and finery
except to their husbands, close relatives, and servants. Slave-girls
who choose to be chaste are not to be forced into prostitution
to make money. The Authors of the Qur'an charge no one
with more than they can bear, and they state that none shall be
wronged.

Chapter 17 on "The Night Journey" to Jerusalem gives
the Qur'an's version of commandments found in the Torah.
First one must serve no other gods but God. One should show kindness
to parents. If one is neither miserly nor prodigal, then one will
not be reproached nor reduced to penury. Baby girls are not to
be killed out of fear of poverty, because God will provide for
them. Adultery is foul and indecent. If a person is slain unjustly,
his heir is entitled to satisfaction. No one should interfere
with the property of orphans until they are mature. Everyone is
accountable for what they promise. Give full measure and weigh
on fair scales. Do not follow what you do not understand; question
the eyes, ears, and heart. Do not walk proudly on earth, for you
cannot rival the mountains in stature. Be courteous in speech.
God has exalted some prophets above others; David was given the
Psalms.

In chapter 60 of the Qur'an God forbids Muslims to make
friends with those who have fought against their religion. Marriages
with unbelieving women should be dissolved. Believers are to avoid
immoderate suspicion, spying, and backbiting. In chapter 48 on
"Victory" Muhammad is told that those who swear fealty
to him swear fealty to God. No soul shall bear another's burden,
and all souls return to God, who knows their inmost thoughts.
Unintentional mistakes shall be forgiven but not deliberate errors.
When humans punish, the punishment should be proportional to the
wrong that has been done to them. Yet enduring wrongs with patience
is best. Be patient, and God will be patient with you. Do not
grieve for the unbelievers nor be distressed by their intrigues.
God is with those who refrain from evil and do good works. In
the chapter on "The Spoils" the prophet is told to arouse
the faithful to arms; they are told that twenty determined men
will conquer a hundred, and a hundred will rout a thousand unbelievers,
who lack understanding. A woeful punishment is proclaimed for
those who hoard gold and silver and do not spend it in God's cause.

The longest chapter in the Qur'an is "The Cow."
Believers are reminded to pray facing Mecca, give charity to the
poor, and fast (until sunset) during the month of Ramadan. God
has forbidden the eating of flesh from animals that die a natural
death, blood, and pork. One must not usurp the property of others
by unjust means nor bribe judges. Although one should fight for
God against those who fight against them, one should not attack
first, because God does not like aggressors. Yet those are to
be killed where they are found, because idolatry is worse than
bloodshed. Unbelievers who attack should be put to the sword;
but if they mend their ways, God is forgiving and merciful. The
Qur'an reminds its listeners that fighting is obligatory
even though they do not like it. Women deserve similar rights
as men, although men have a higher status.

In the 4th chapter called "Women" listeners are told
that if they cannot treat orphan girls fairly, they may marry
other women - two, three, or four. Yet if they are afraid they
cannot treat them equally, they should marry only one or slave-girls
they own so as to avoid injustice. A male is to inherit twice
as much as a female. Disobedient women may be admonished, sent
to beds apart, and even beat. In "The Table" God suggests
the penalty for a broken oath is to feed or clothe ten needy people
or free one slave. Those who cannot afford these may fast for
three days. Satan stirs up hatred and trouble by means of wine
and gambling; believers are asked to abstain from them. Those
who have faith and do not taint their faith with wrong-doing shall
find salvation.

The conversations of Muhammad and his companions were also
written down and collected as Hadith (Traditions) so that
they could be used as counsel for Muslim morals and manners. Muhammad
ibn Isma'il al Bukhari (810-70) gathered 600,000 traditions, from
which he selected 7,225 he considered authentic. Although not
considered as sacred as the Qur'an itself, these provided
another compendium of teachings that became central to Muslim
culture. These traditions recommend being good to one's mother,
obeying parents, not cursing, doing good and maintaining good
relations, taking care of family first and neighbors next, caring
for orphans, treating servants well, controlling anger, being
friendly, generous, forgiving, and patient, not lying, visiting
the sick, praying sincerely, and even specific manners such as
covering your mouth when yawning or saying "God bless you"
after someone sneezes. Al-Bukhari and Muslim also recorded the
tradition that actions are the results of intention, which comes
from the heart. God will not look at people's bodies or forms
but at their hearts.

Islamic Wars in the Near East 632-661

After the Emigrants and the Helpers pledged their loyalty to
Abu Bakr as Muhammad's successor (Caliph), 'Umar proposed that
anyone else who presumed to take on the sovereign power should
be put to death along with those who support him; the assembly
passed this resolution. This and 'Umar's threat to set his house
on fire was enough to discourage 'Ali from making his claim as
successor. Abu Bakr's name means "father of the virgin,"
and his daughter 'A'isha was the only wife that came to the apostle
as a virgin; all the others were widows, and many probably were
married for political reasons. Abu Bakr, like Muhammad, lived
fairly ascetically without pomp. Every Friday he distributed surplus
funds to the meritorious and needy. At first many of the Arabian
tribes refused to pay the required alms to the Caliph, and the
new state consisted primarily of Medina, Mecca, and Ta'if. Some
Bedouin rebels led by Malik ibn Nuwirah even marched on Medina.
Abu Bakr sent out Khalid ibn al-Walid with 4500 men and instructions
to be lenient; but the zealous general allowed his warriors to
seize herds and enslave children. The beauty of Malik's wife was
given as the reason Khalid had the rebel beheaded by Derar, even
though Malik professed Islam.

A larger force was led by Musaylima, who claimed to be a prophet
also. His forces were joined by those of Saja, a woman who headed
the Banu Tamim, when Musaylima married her. Their ten thousand
followers were defeated at Akreba by Khalid's warriors, who had
1200 Muslims killed. Musaylima also fought and was killed. Abu
Bakr dubbed Khalid "the sword of God." Since two of
the six Muslims who had memorized the entire Qur'an were
killed, after this battle Abu Bakr ordered Muhammad's former secretary
Zayd ibn Thabit to collect the written and oral revelations. Qur'an
reciters were sent out to teach the Arabs Islam.

After Bahrain, Uman, and Yemen had submitted, Abu Bakr sent
out an appeal to all Arabs to join the Muslim army marching into
Syria. He appointed Abu Sufyan governor of Nadj and Hijaz. His
son Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan commanded one of three armies sent east
of the Jordan; the other generals were Abu 'Ubayda and Shurahbil
ibn Hasana; and 'Amr ibn al-'As was sent to invade Palestine.
They were told not to destroy fruit trees or grain fields nor
to kill cattle except for food. Religious people and their buildings
were to be respected; but unbelievers who did not embrace Islam
or pay tribute were to be killed. Yazid's army defeated and killed
a force of 1200 sent by Byzantine emperor Heraclius, and spoils
were sent back to Medina. Abu Bakr sent several forces to Syria
commanded by Abu 'Ubayda.

The outstanding general Khalid went with a force of 10,000
into Iraq. Khalid gave the people of Hira a choice of three options
that became the standard policy of the Muslim conquerors - either
accept Islam, agree to pay the jizya tribute, or fight.
Then he besieged and captured the former Lakhmid capital of Hira,
imposing an annual tribute of 70,000 pieces of gold. Khalid sent
a letter to the Persians warning them if they did not become Muslims
or pay protection, he would come upon them with men who love death
as much as they love life or wine. Next Khalid's forces defeated
the Persian governor at Aila, and one-fifth of the spoils was
sent to the Caliph.

Abu Bakr ordered Khalid to leave Muthana in charge in Iraq
and to take command of Muslim forces in Syria. Khalid with an
army of 40,000 Muslims marched toward Damascus. Not knowing their
numbers, Emperor Heraclius at Antioch sent 5,000 men led by Calous,
who was defeated and beheaded when he refused to renounce Christianity
for Islam. Damascus was besieged, and Heraclius sent an army of
100,000 commanded by Emessa prefect Werdan. The bold Muslim Derar
attacked them with a small force and was captured. The fanatical
Muslims defeated the larger Byzantine army, and Derar was rescued.
Thousands of fleeing Greeks were killed. Khalid learned of a treacherous
ambush and turned the tables on Werdan, allowing Derar to behead
him. Abu Sufyan persuaded Abu Bakr to send Quraysh warriors to
reinforce Khalid. The Muslim army defeated the Byzantine forces
of Heraclius in southern Palestine at the battle of Ajnadayn.

After a siege of six months the Damascenes negotiated their
capitulation with Abu 'Ubayda, knowing he was more conciliatory;
at the same time Khalid's forces were storming the city. To maintain
Muslim credibility Khalid agreed to honor the terms Abu 'Ubayda
granted; but after three days he pursued those who were allowed
to leave with minimal weapons for self-defense and was aided in
catching them by the traitor Jonas, who sought the woman Eudocea.
When they were captured, Eudocea committed suicide, and the Christians
were killed or made prisoners. Khalid returned to Damascus and
sent one-fifth of the spoils to Caliph Abu Bakr, who had died
in 634 when Damascus was taken. Abu Bakr had nominated 'Umar as
his successor, and he was elected the second Caliph.

'Umar also lived frugally and abstinently, drinking only water
and eating mostly dates, barley bread, sometimes even refraining
from the luxury of salt. He noted that four things do not come
back - spoken words, arrows shot, past actions, and neglected
opportunity. During the decade of his reign many mosques were
constructed; prisons were also built as a police force was organized.
'Umar devised a twisted whip for minor offenses which was more
feared than his sword. Drunkenness was punished with eighty lashes,
and 'Umar did not even spare his own son, who died from the whipping.
Instead of the long title, successor of the successor of the prophet,
he took the title Commander of the Faithful. Although the prophet
Muhammad had promised protection to the Jews in Khaybar, 'Umar
expelled Jews from Arabia to Syria. No Muslim was allowed to cultivate
land outside of the Arabian peninsula. In conquered territory
Muslim men were always armed, and non-Muslims were not allowed
arms. Some were upset when 'Umar replaced the aggressive Khalid
as his top general with Abu 'Ubayda, whom he favored for his moderation
and piety. The concern increased, because Abu 'Ubayda withheld
the report of Abu Bakr's death and the replacement until after
Khalid had wiped out the exiles fleeing Damascus, which 'Umar
also criticized.

Abu Bakr's stepson Abd-Allah volunteered to lead 500 men to
an Easter fair at the Abyla convent but found they were guarded
by 5,000 horsemen. The Muslims nonetheless attacked, but one rode
to Damascus for reinforcements. Khalid and Derar led a band and
turned the battle into a Muslim victory, taking rich spoils. The
hermit, who attracted the crowd, warned Khalid of heaven's vengeance
for his having slaughtered Christians. The Muslim general replied
that he was obeying God in killing unbelievers.

Abu 'Ubaydah's Muslim forces met a Persian army led by Bahman
Jaduya on the banks of the Euphrates. 4,000 Muslims were killed,
and Muthana was wounded. In the next battle in 635 Muthana's brother
Mas'ud was killed, but the Persians fled. After Muthana died of
his wound, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas was named commander. Persian king
Yazdgard III complained that the Muslims came to rob their land
and offered to load their camels with dates and grain if they
would depart. The opposing armies camped at Qadisyah next to a
Euphrates canal. During the battle of Qadisyah in 637 about 10,000
Arab Muslims were reinforced with 6,000 warriors from Syria; but
they faced about 80,000 Persians led by Rustam, who had the canal
filled in so that he could use his elephants. The Persian army
was defeated, as Rustam was killed, and the sacred standard of
Persia was captured. The Arabs also lost a third of their men
but obtained spoils and the fertile Sawad of Iraq. 'Umar had a
city called Basra founded where the Euphrates and Tigris flow
into the Persian Gulf.

Khalid's Muslims besieged Emessa, and Abu 'Ubayda accepted
their tribute for a one-year truce. He also tried to limit the
marauding in Alhadir and Kennesrin by making similar arrangements,
frustrating some of the warriors wanting to plunder. At Aleppo
the chief general Abu 'Ubayda demanded double the tribute offered
and one thousand swords. The Muslims spent their profits so freely
that Aleppo governor Herbis was trying to get his money back by
collecting ten percent; when he tried to increase this to one-fourth,
his people killed him. In 636 after the truce Abu 'Ubayda went
back to besieging Emessa, which along with other towns eventually
surrendered.

The Muslim army of 40,000 camped at Yarmuk between Palestine
and Arabia. Emperor Heraclius sent Manuel with a Byzantine army
reported to be 80,000. They were joined by 60,000 Arabs of Ghassanid
chief Jabalah, who had once been a Muslim; but he renounced his
faith after a pilgrimage in which an argument led him to knock
out a peasant's teeth, and he would not agree to a "tooth
for a tooth." Khalid boldly attacked the Ghassanids, who
retreated, though Yazid, Rafi, and Derar were captured. The Caliph
sent ibn 'Amir with 8,000 reinforcements, and on the way they
defeated 5,000 men led by the Ammon prefect. At a conference Manuel
complained that the Muslims were invading their territories to
steal their wives and property, while Khalid replied that they
were obstinate in not accepting the one God Allah and his prophet
Muhammad. At the battle of Yarmuk in 636 Muslims were kept from
retreating by their women, who drove their men back to the front
with reproaches and blows. 700 Muslims were said to have lost
an eye from Christian arrows. After several days of fierce fighting,
the Christians fled in various directions. One-fifth of the spoils
were sent to the Caliph, and cavalry with pure Arabian horses
received a double share.

'Ali advised Caliph 'Umar to aim for Jerusalem, and the holy
city was besieged by Abu 'Ubaydah's army although the Christian
patriarch Sophronius said this offended God. The patriarch agreed
to surrender the city if the Caliph would come in person. 'Umar
left 'Ali in charge at Medina and made the journey by camel. At
one stop a Christian objected to 'Umar's statement that God leads
some into error. When the Caliph threatened to have his head cut
off, the Christian kept silent. In 637 Jerusalem capitulated to
'Umar's terms that promised safe conduct to their persons, property,
and churches; but those who did not emigrate must pay the jizya
tax. They could not sell wine, bear arms, or even ride a horse
with a saddle and had to show respect to all Muslims. 'Umar appointed
Yazid Abu Sufyan governor in southern Syria and sent Abu 'Ubaydah's
larger army into northern Syria.

Aleppo was now governed by two brothers of opposite temperaments
- the aggressive Youkinna and the monkish Johannas. Youkinna led
12,000 men against the Muslims while the merchants agreed to pay
Abu 'Ubayda. After a battle Youkinna returned to Aleppo, demanded
they renounce the treaty, and cut off the head of his peaceful
brother. Just then Khalid's forces appeared and killed 3,000 of
Youkinna's troops. The Muslim warrior Damas led a stealthy night
attack and opened the gates; the Christians soon surrendered,
and Youkinna accepted Islam. Youkinna then treacherously used
his former reputation to help the Muslims take the cities of Azaz
and Antioch, where Emperor Heraclius actually put Youkinna in
charge of his army. Caliph 'Umar was described to the Byzantine
emperor as living in a house of mud, attended by beggars and the
poor, decorated by justice and equity on a throne of abstinence
and true knowledge with faith in God as his treasure, and the
bravest Unitarians as his guards. Jabalah proposed they send a
man to assassinate 'Umar to no avail. Antioch's iron bridge was
surrendered, and Youkinna freed Derar and the other Muslim prisoners.
Heraclius fled to Constantinople, and Antioch bought safety for
300,000 gold coins on August 21, 638.

Abu 'Ubayda wrote to the Caliph that his men were marrying
Greek women; but 'Umar replied that men without wives at home
could do so and purchase as many female slaves as they wished.
Muslim general 'Amr ibn al-'As led a siege of Caesarea; when he
sent the former slave and announcer Bilal as an envoy, he was
rejected by prince Constantine for being a black Ethiopian. Constantine
would not pay tribute or give up religious freedom, and so 'Amr
said the only alternative was the sword. This time Youkinna and
his men were discovered and imprisoned. Tyre troops sallied forth
to meet 2,000 Muslims led by Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan, while Youkinna
and 900 men were freed by an apostate, found weapons, and fought
too. Most in Tripoli and Tyre accepted Islam, and those who did
not were plundered and enslaved. Constantine fled by ship to join
his father at Constantinople, and Caesarea gave up the imperial
family's wealth and paid a large ransom in 639. The conquest of
Syria was followed by famine and pestilence. In addition to uncounted
Syrians 25,000 invading Muslims died including Abu 'Ubayda, Yazid
ibn Abu Sufyan, and other generals. 'Umar complained that Khalid
paid 30,000 silver coins to a poet praising his victories; the
general was fined although it was found he had not embezzled money,
and Khalid died leaving only his arms, his war-horse, and one
slave.

A Muslim army of perhaps 60,000 marched on the Persian capital
called Mada'in, which included the cities of Ctesiphon and Seleucia
on the banks of the Tigris. King Yazdgard left Ctesiphon before
they arrived, and the forces that remained soon fled. So much
treasure was obtained that after one-fifth was sent to Medina,
each Muslim received 12,000 silver dirhams. Fourteen months
later the garrison city of Kufa was founded. Sa'd built such an
elaborate palace there that Caliph 'Umar sent an envoy to burn
it down. Forces led by Persian general Hurmuzan were defeated
at Arbuq and fled, pursued by Nu'man and his Muslims. After a
siege at Shustar Hurmuzan agreed to surrender if he were sent
to the Caliph.

City after city fell in Khuzistan, and Fars was raided. Caliph
'Umar appointed Nu'man to replace Sa'd at Kufa; but he was killed
during the Muslims' "victory of victories" at Nihavand
which was reported to have killed 100,000 Persians and finally
defeated the Sassanian empire in 641. The Persian aristocracy
had over-taxed the people for too long. The Arabs collected less
taxes, and the Muslims certainly fought with more zeal for their
religion. While pursuing Yazdgard, Muslim forces led by Jarir
captured prosperous Hulwan peacefully; the ancient Ecbatana called
Hamadan was taken; and Nu'aim took Ray. Tabaristan agreed to pay
an annual tribute of 500,000 dirhams. Zarathustran temples
were destroyed in Azerbaijan, and Qazvin surrendered in 644. The
capitulation terms of Jurjan, Tabaristan, Jil Jilan, and Azerbaijan
also provided safe conduct in exchange for the jizya tax
and required them to provide hospitality to traveling Muslims.
Many treaties threatened severe punishments for striking or insulting
a Muslim.

'Amr led the Muslim invasion of Egypt in 640, besieging Misrah
(Memphis) for seven months. Egyptian governor Muqawqis disagreed
with the Greek orthodox theology anyway and agreed to pay two
gold pieces for every man, not counting old men and monks. Alexandria
was besieged for fourteen months and succumbed in 642; but leaving
it without an adequate garrison, the Muslims had to conquer the
metropolis again in 645. The city was said to contain 4,000 palaces,
4,000 baths, 400 theaters, 12,000 vegetable gardeners, and 40,000
tributary Jews. The Muslim warriors were prevented from pillaging
and wasting the wealth so that it could be used to pay for the
expenses of the war. The annual taxes imposed were estimated at
12,000,000 dirhams. The grain of Egypt was sent by caravan
to Arabia to alleviate the famine. John the Grammarian asked for
the valuable books in the library. 'Amr sent his request to Caliph
'Umar, who reasoned that the Qur'an is sufficient, because
those books agreeing with it are useless and those disagreeing
are pernicious; thus they should be destroyed. The precious manuscripts
supplied the fuel to heat the city's baths for the next six months.
Since no contemporary account of the library being destroyed at
this time exists, this story may have been fabricated by the Baghdad
historian Abdul Latif several centuries later.

Caliph 'Umar had warned against Persian luxuries, and he prohibited
female captives, who had borne a child, from being sold as slaves.
In his weekly distribution of funds he paid more attention to
need than merit, believing worldly things are to relieve necessities
while God rewards virtue in heaven. He assigned pensions to companions
of Muhammad and to those who had served in the army. Those who
served the Muslim cause in earlier campaigns received much larger
amounts, and the inequality led to significant resentment. During
his reign it was reported that 36,000 towns, castles, and strongholds
fell to the Muslims. In 644 'Umar was assassinated by a Persian
slave named Firuz while praying in a mosque. 'Umar's son 'Ubayd-Allah
in revenge killed the prisoner Hurmuzan and two others; but he
escaped punishment by the next Caliph. While dying 'Umar had left
the election to six men including 'Ali; but 'Uthman was elected
after 'Ali insisted on following only the Qur'an and his
own judgment rather than the Qur'an and precedents of the
previous caliphs.

'Uthman had been a secretary of Muhammad, and during his reign
the Qur'an was edited into its final form. All other versions
were ordered burned, though many reciters in Kufa resisted complying
for a while. 'Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud, who also had been a secretary
to Muhammad, charged that 'Uthman's version of the Qur'an
was falsified. 'Uthman was seventy when he took office and relied
on his secretary of state Marwan ibn Hakam, who received 504,000
gold dinars from the public treasury. 'Uthman also aroused
resentment by appointing many of his Umayyad relatives to important
positions. He deposed Persia conqueror Sa'd ibn Abi-Waqqas in
Kufa with a relative, who got so drunk he was flogged and replaced
by a younger relative, who allowed ruffians to run wild and also
had to be dismissed. Egypt's experienced conqueror 'Amr ibn al-'As
was replaced by 'Uthman's foster brother Abd-Allah ibn Sa'd. Soon
Umayyads controlled the treasury, the police, the pilgrimage,
the inspectors, and the army in Arabia as well as in the conquered
territories.

In 647 'Abd-Allah ibn Sa'd led an army of 40,000 west of Egypt
across North Africa. Tripoli's prefect Gregory rejected the usual
options of converting to Islam or paying tribute, choosing to
fight. After a few days Gregory offered his daughter's hand in
marriage and 100,000 gold coins to anyone who killed the Muslim
commander. 'Abd-Allah withdrew from the combat but was reprimanded
upon the arrival of Zubayr, who suggested they offer the same
daughter to anyone who killed Gregory. Zubayr himself killed Gregory
but gave up his daughter for the right to tell his story of conquest
in the mosque at Medina. Abu Sufyan's son Mu'awiya persuaded the
Caliph to let him organize a navy. Cyprus was raided in 649, and
the Muslim navy won a decisive victory over the Byzantines in
655 to make Cyprus pay tribute.

Many regions in Persia reverted after having submitted to Islam,
and Sa'd ibn al-'As had to invade Tabaristan, and others campaigned
against insurrection in Azerbaijan. The fleeing king Yazdgard
instigated the Persians in Fars, and the young cousin of the Caliph,
'Abd-Allah ibn 'Amir led an army in a protracted war that by 649
had killed a reported 40,000 or more. Then Firuzabad agreed to
pay 33,000,000 dirhams annually. Yazdgard retreated to
Kirman, and 'Abd-Allah ibn 'Amir, now governor of Basra, sent
an army led by Muja Shi' to pursue him, though many perished in
the snow. 'Amir then sent general Rabi' into Sistan, and he settled
in its main city of Zarang for several years. 'Amir himself led
expeditions into Khurasan, taking Nishapur, Abivard, Nisa, and
Sarakhs. Yazdgard was finally killed in 651 at Marv.

Resentment throughout the Islamic empire increased after 'Uthman
lost the prophet's ring in a stream in 650. The spoils of conquest
were decreasing, and many government and military officials had
to be paid. His request that tribute be sent to Medina caused
Sawad treasurer 'Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud to resign in protest; the
respected companion of the prophet was even beaten at a Medina
mosque. The aristocratic privileges of the earlier Muslims were
also resented. Abu Dharr criticized the great wealth of the Umayyads
and quoted the Qur'an statement that those who hoard gold
and silver will face a fearful punishment. Although Abu Dharr
had been a close companion of the prophet, Mu'awiya sent him to
Medina for trial, and he was banished for continuing to criticize
the regime.

In 655 after governor Sa'd ibn al-As conferred with the Caliph
at Medina, 3,000 prominent Kufans chose Abu Musa al-Ash'ari to
replace him. From Egypt about 500 Muslims led by Abu Bakr's son
Muhammad marched to Medina to complain. When they discovered a
secret message on their return that the leaders were to be killed,
they went back to Medina and demanded that 'Uthman abdicate. He
denied sending the message and refused; after rocks were thrown
at him, he stayed in his house. Although 'Ali, Zubayr, and Talha
sent their sons to protect the Caliph's house, the conspirators
got in on June 17, 656 and killed 'Uthman with swords while he
was reading the Qur'an; his wife Naila lost three fingers
trying to protect him. 'Ali waited five days before he accepted
election as Caliph.

'Ali sent replacements for five major governors 'Uthman had
appointed; but only 'Abd-Allah ibn Abbas was able to take office
in Arabia, while that retiring governor Jaali took the public
treasury to Mecca. There the resentful 'A'isha persuaded Talha
and Zubayr to lead 3,000 Meccans and march on Basra. That city
was divided, and 'Uthman ibn Hanif, whom 'Ali had sent to govern
Kufa, commanded some forces in Basra. Efforts to resolve the differences
of the two factions resulted in their throwing dirt in each other's
faces. A truce was agreed upon while deputies were sent to Medina,
and 'A'isha, Zubayr, and Talha entered Basra. 'Ali raised a force
of 900 men and marched toward Basra. In Kufa 'Ali's son Hasan
persuaded nearly 9,000 to follow him, and by the time 'Ali's army
reached Basra it had about 30,000 experienced troops. In the battle
of the camel 'A'isha stayed on her camel protected by warriors
as her howdah was covered with arrows. In this first battle
of a civil war 13,000 Muslims were slain. Zubayr and Talha were
killed, and 'A'isha was forced to retire at Medina. 'Ali moved
the capital to the growing city of Kufa in Iraq, while 'Uthman's
bloody shirt had been sent to Damascus to arouse people in Syria.

'Ali also governed Arabia, Persia, and Egypt, but Mu'awiya
ruled Syria and Palestine. A tribal conflict between the Umayyads
and 'Ali's house of Hashim now became an imperial struggle. In
567 their large armies met for four months at Siffin; but both
sides were reluctant to engage in full warfare against fellow
Muslims, though some reported that tens of thousands were killed.
When 'Ali's side seemed to be winning, Mu'awiyah's army began
holding up the Qur'an on their spears, bringing about an
armistice. An arbitration by two judges was to decide; but Mu'awiyah's
capable 'Amr ibn al-'As got Musa al-Ashari to agree that neither
Mu'awiya nor 'Ali should be Caliph. A third tribe of Bani Tamim
believed that 'Ali was wrong in submitting to human arbitration
instead of to God, and these seceders (Kharijis) organized
their own forces.

The Kharijis believed the caliph does not need to be selected
from either the Umayyad or 'Ali families but should be elected
by Muslims and that those guilty of a grave sin should be treated
as unbelievers. Mu'awiya sent an army to take control of Egypt.
'Ali's governor Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was personally executed
by Mu'awiya for his part in murdering 'Uthman, and 'Amr ibn al-'As
became governor of Egypt again. Mu'awiya demanded that 'Ali punish
the other murderers of the Caliph; but this would include 'Ali's
main assistant at Kufa, Malik al-Astar, and other supporters.

Dissenting Kharijis opposed to the authority of 'Ali as well
as that of Mu'awiya, attacked Ctesiphon with 4,000 men. 'Ali's
army slaughtered most of them at the small village of Baghdad;
but those who escaped spread their independent message. 'Ali no
longer had enough support to march against Syria, and in 660 Mu'awiya
was proclaimed caliph at Jerusalem. Many believe that the Kharijis
conspired to assassinate 'Ali, Mu'awiya, and 'Amr ibn al-'As at
the same time. Mu'awiya was wounded but recovered; in Egypt the
Imam officiating at the mosque in place of 'Amr ibn al-'As was
murdered by mistake; but in Kufa 'Ali died after three days from
a wound by a poisoned sword. 'Ali nominated his oldest son Hasan,
but in 661 Mu'awiya persuaded the peace-loving Hasan to retire
at Medina on a generous pension.

Umayyad Caliphate 661-750

Although Mu'awiya was an Umayyad and kept his relatives in
place, his main goal as caliph was Muslim unity. He took measures
to control revenue though he granted local governors much autonomy.
However, when 'Ali partisan Hujr ibn 'Adi in Kufa refused allegiance
to Mu'awiya's governor and threatened rebellion, Mu'awiya had
him brought to Damascus and executed him for continuing to refuse.
Al-Maghira of Ta'if governed Kufa for a decade and gained Kufans'
cooperation by allowing them to keep some of the revenues and
by paying salaries regularly. Mu'awiya's governor in Basra, the
Umayyad 'Abd Allah, reconquered Khurasan and entered Transoxiana
as far as Kabul; but disorders in Basra caused him to be replaced
in 664 by Ziyad ibn Abihi of Ta'if; he promised the people access
to himself and strictly enforced the laws, including a curfew.
He also sent armies to Khurasan. When al-Maghira died in 670,
Ziyad became governor of Kufa too. The next year Ziyad sent 50,000
troops from Basra and Kufa to settle in the Marv oasis. He died
in 673 and was succeeded by his son 'Ubayd Allah.

In Syria Mu'awiya's armies invaded Armenia and garrisoned parts
of Anatolia. His navy captured Rhodes in 672 and Crete two years
later. Muslims even attacked Constantinople in 669 and began a
four-year siege of the Byzantine capital in 674, but they were
driven back by the use of Greek fire containing a secret phosphorous
compound. 'Amr's nephew Uqbah ibn Nafi led the campaigns in North
Africa against the Berbers about 670 until he reached the Atlantic
Ocean.

When Mu'awiya nominated his son Yazid as his successor, some
complained that election was being replaced by a hereditary monarchy.
Yazid's mother was a Christian poet, and he spent much time drinking
with women and hunting. 'Ali's son Hasan had died in 669, and
some suspected he was poisoned by Yazid's order. 'Ali's second
son Husain was urged to go to Kufa; but on October 10, 680 he,
the women and children of his family, and about a hundred supporters
were massacred by an army of 4,000 after a valiant battle at Karbala.
As the grandson of the prophet Muhammad, Husain's heroic martyrdom
became a rallying point for followers of 'Ali who wanted a spiritual
leader or Imam rather than a political monarch from the family
of Abu Sufyan, who had so strongly opposed the apostle in Mecca.
'Abd-Allah ibn-al'Zubayr had encouraged Husain to go to Kufa,
and he now proclaimed himself Caliph and managed to replace some
of the Umayyad governors from his capital at Mecca. In 683 Yazid
sent 12,000 men under Muslim ibn-Uqba, who destroyed Medina and
attacked Mecca, where the Ka'ba was burned. The siege of Mecca
was lifted when they heard that Yazid had died.

Yazid was succeeded by his young son Mu'awiya II; but he died
of a plague about two months later. 'Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad had
to flee Basra for Syria, where he persuaded Marwan not to accept
Zubayr; the Umayyads and the southern Yemeni tribes that included
the Kalb then overcame the Qays and Zubayrids to make Marwan caliph.
However, this tribal feud would go on for generations. Kharijis
in Arabia set up Najdah ibn 'Amir in Najd, while Azraqi Kharijis
mostly from Basra established another regime in Iran. Marwan ibn-Hakam
had been 'Uthman's powerful secretary and was head of the Umayyad
house. He defeated a rebellion led by Dahlak at Marj Rahit near
Damascus and extended his power into Egypt. Marwan died in 685
and was succeeded by his son 'Abd-al-Malik.

Called the Avenger, Mukhtar ibn Abi-'Ubayd supported 'Ali's
sons Hasan and Husain. Kufa governor 'Ubayd Allah had knocked
out one of his eyes and put Mukhtar in prison before the Husain
massacre. Mukhtar was released by Yazid, and he argued against
the fanatical effort of the "penitents" led by Sulayman
that failed with only 4,000 men. Imprisoned again, after Marwan
died, Mukhtar, crying "Vengeance for Husain," freed
members of 'Ali's family from prison and then defeated and killed
'Ubayd Allah in a bloody battle near Mosul in 686. Mukhtar led
a group to be called Shi'ah, who gave non-Arab converts an equal
share of Muslims' financial advantages. Mukhtar at Kufa proclaimed
'Ali's son ibn-al-Hanafiyyah not only caliph but the Messianic
mahdi. The defeated sharifs (leaders) of Kufa gathered
10,000 men and joined Zubayr's brother Mus'ab, governor in Basra,
who had been fighting the Kharijis. Together they returned to
Kufa and defeated Mukhtar in 687, killing a reported 7,000 Kufans.

'Abd al-Malik consolidated his power in Syria when the Qaysi
following Zufar ibn al-Harith al Kilabi abandoned Zubayr in exchange
for privileges in the Umayyad court and army. In 691 Mus'ab ibn
al-Zubayr was ruling in Kufa, and 'Abd-al-Malik led an army to
attack him, leaving 'Amr ibn Sa'd in charge at Damascus. Learning
'Amr had usurped power, the Caliph returned; but women intervened
between the forces with their children to prevent violence. 'Amr
laid down his arms; but 'Abd-al-Malik went back on his agreement
and beheaded 'Amr, put to death his main supporters, and banished
his family. Then the Caliph led the army that defeated Mus'ab
at Dayr al-Jathaliq. Syrian forces led by al-Hajjaj eventually
captured Mecca in 692, killing 'Abd-Allah ibn-al'Zubayr and wrecking
the Ka'ba. An old Arab commented that he had seen the head of
Husain taken by 'Ubayd Allah, whose head was taken by Mukhtar,
whose head was taken by Mus'ab, whose head was taken by the Caliph.

After these civil wars 'Abd al-Malik helped to unify the Islamic
empire by issuing Arabic coins and requiring the Arabic language
in all government administration. Judges called qadis were
appointed to settle disputes according to Islamic law, and the
use of a more exact script assured the Qur'an would not
change. This Caliph also established a postal service. Many were
encouraged to convert, because Muslims paid less taxes. By joining
the army they even got a salary, providing the soldiers needed
for the imperial conquests. To establish a religious alternative
to the Ka'ba of Mecca, 'Abd al-Malik had the impressive Dome of
the Rock constructed in Jerusalem.

The Caliph's brother 'Abd al-Aziz governed Egypt from 685 to
704, and another brother Muhammad ibn Marwan governed Jazira (692-709).
The Caliph sent Zubair to quell opposition by Berbers and Byzantines
in North Africa. After their garrison at Qairawan was massacred
by Berbers, he sent Hassan ibn al-Naaman in 693, and in seven
years his forces reconquered Qairawan and, aided by the Muslim
navy, captured Carthage, which they destroyed. When Hassan went
to Damascus and was made governor of Barca, 'Abd al-Aziz replaced
him with Musa ibn Nusayr. Caliph 'Abd al-Malik objected; but Musa
sent so much captured treasure to him that he changed his mind
and made Musa governor of Africa. Musa founded dock-yards and
by 703 had built up the Muslim fleet at Tunis.

'Abd al-Malik in 691 had appointed his brother Bishr ibn Marwan
to govern Iraq; but he was replaced by al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf in
694, who took charge of both Kufa and Basra. Al-Hajjaj extended
his control to the east in 697 when Khurasan and Sistan became
his responsibility. Soldiers from Kufa and Basra tired of long
campaigns in the east. In 699 the greatest sharif of Iraq,
ibn al-Ash'ath, was sent on an expedition to Sistan, where he
revolted and led his army back through Fars, defeating al-Hajjaj's
forces at Tustar in 701. Ibn al-Ash'ath took control of Kufa while
al-Hajjaj retreated to Basra. The Caliph offered to confirm ibn
al-Ash'ath's position and raise the pay of Iraqi soldiers to equal
that of the Syrians; but his soldiers would not agree, and ibn
al-Ash'ath was defeated by al-Hajjaj and the Syrians the same
year. Ibn al-Ash'ath fled east and took refuge with the Zabulistan
prince he had originally been sent to fight; but his men dispersed,
and he died. Al-Hajjaj then established a permanent garrison of
Syrian troops between Kufa and Basra at Wasit, and the Iraqis
were effectively subjugated. Canals were built and land was reclaimed
with most of the profits going to Syria. Although the Muhallab
family had not joined the rebellion of ibn al-Ash'ath, they were
replaced in 704, because al-Hajjaj could not tolerate their independence.
Al-Hajjaj sent an army commanded by Abdul Rahman all the way to
Kabul, where a Turkish king refusing to pay tribute was defeated.

Caliph 'Abd al-Malik died in 705 and was succeeded by his son
al-Walid. He systematized public charity in Syria by founding
orphanages, schools, and hospitals; he granted pensions to the
poor and aged, built roads, canals, and frontier posts, and kept
an eye on prices by visiting the marketplace himself. Al-Walid
established the first asylums for the mentally ill and hospices
for the blind. The many building projects he sponsored included
the Great Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. This project alone was said
to have cost all of Syria's revenue of seven years, plus eighteen
shiploads of gold and silver from Cyprus. The Caliph was especially
kind to women and was never seen losing his temper. Al-Walid's
mother was a Qaysi, and he gave that tribe privileges; but his
brother and heir Sulayman, who governed Palestine, was allied
to the Yemeni tribe, as was his cousin 'Umar, the son of 'Abd
al-'Aziz ibn Marwan, who had connections in Egypt and was appointed
to rule the Hijaz (Arabia).

In the ten-year reign of al-Walid the Islamic empire was greatly
expanded. Although his wife called Hajjaj a blood-thirsty murderer,
the Caliph kept him in charge of the east. Hajjaj sent his governor
of Khurasan, Qutaybah, across the Oxus in 705 to conquer Balkh
and Bukhara by 709, Khwarazm and Samarqand by 712, and Farghana
by 713. The Sind was conquered in India and ruled by Muhammad
ibn al-Qasim; this area would become Muslim Pakistan in the 20th
century. According to the historian Masudi, the armies of al-Hajjaj
in addition to those men they lost had killed 120,000 men and
women, and 80,000 people were in prison when he died in 714. Qasim
was recalled by the Caliph and executed for a charge that later
was proved false. In the north the Muslims had invaded Byzantine
Cilicia for a decade since 700 and entered Galatia in 714.

In the west Spain fell quickly into the hands of Muslim invaders.
In 709 when Roderick usurped the Spanish crown. According to legend
repeated by Arabic and Spanish historians, Roderick raped Florinda,
the virgin daughter of Count Julian, who ruled Ceuta across the
strait on the northwest tip of Africa. For revenge Julian betrayed
his religion and country by assisting the Muslim general Jebel
Tariq, who sent 500 Berbers the next year. In 711 Jebel Tariq
landed with 7,000 men across the straits of Gibraltar named after
him. The Muslims conquered Andalusia, taking Malaga, Granada,
and Cordoba. Toledo was betrayed by Jews, who had been unfairly
treated by the Christians, and Tariq's forces defeated Roderick's
army in July. African governor Musa ibn Nusayr became jealous
and crossed over with an army of 10,000 Arabs the following year
and conquered Medina Sidonia, Seville, and Merida. By the end
of 713 all of Spain was controlled by the Muslims, as the Gothic
rulers fled across the Pyrenees to their provinces in Gaul. The
Caliph accused Musa of exceeding orders, just as Musa had reprimanded
Tariq. Musa was summoned to Damascus and brought with him tremendous
spoils, including 18,000 of the finest men and women captured.

When Sulayman became Caliph in 715, he stayed in Palestine
and ruled from his capital at Ramla. He removed the conquering
Musa from his office and took away all his wealth. Musa's son
'Abd al-'Aziz married the late Roderick's queen Exilona, an ex-Muslim
who now preferred Christianity; but he was suspected of coveting
a crown and was executed along with his bride, and his two brothers
in Africa were also killed. Sulayman opposed the policies of Hajjaj
and had given refuge to the deposed governor of Khurasan, Yazid
ibn al-Muhallab; he dismissed Qutayba from the same province.
Sulayman's first official act was to release all those imprisoned
in the east by Hajjaj. His Yemeni party believed that non-Arab
converts should have the same rights and status as the Arabs.
Yazid led the large Azd tribe that had migrated to Basra; he was
put in charge of Iraq and Khurasan in the east, and he led the
invasions of Tabaristan. Sulayman was known for his luxurious
living; he launched a costly attack on Constantinople led by 'Abd
al-Malik's son Maslama with a reported 80,000 men in which the
Muslim navy of 1800 ships was devastated by Greek fire. Sulayman
died of illness on the way to a campaign against the Byzantines
in 717. During his reign Muslims crossed the Pyrenees and settled
in the Garonne valley of southern France.

'Umar was Caliph for only three years (717-720), but he was
the only Umayyad caliph singled out by Abbasid historians for
his Islamic virtue. He deposed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab and appointed
various people, both Yemenis and Qaysis, to govern the eastern
provinces. He attempted to reduce taxes and resolve the complaints
of the malawi converts, who were taxed as if they were
not Muslims. Only unbelievers were required the pay the jizya
(poll tax). The malawi land was not sold to Muslims but
was turned over to local villages, which paid the kharaj
(land tax). 'Umar II tried to improve religious tolerance by restoring
churches to Christians, synagogues to Jews, and the oasis of Fardak
to the followers of 'Ali, and he abolished the despicable practice
that Mu'awiya had started of cursing 'Ali after the Juma (community)
prayers. Yet 'Umar may also have discriminated against Christians
and Jews by enacting laws such as the one prohibiting them from
riding a horse. (There is confusion as to whether these were instituted
by 'Umar I or 'Umar II.) The ascetic 'Umar stopped the foreign
wars and conquests. To his son, who asked for stern measures to
root out evil, he replied, "That means the sword, and there
are no good reforms that can be accomplished by the sword."8

Unfortunately most of 'Umar's reforms seem to have been reversed
by his successor Yazid II (r. 720-724), who indulged himself while
his Qaysi advisors governed. Yazid ibn al-Muhallab escaped from
prison and raised a rebellion against Syrian rule. His jihad
(holy war) was organized at Basra; they took the garrison town
of Wasit and marched on Kufa. The Basra judge al-Hasan al-Basri
(d. 728) spoke against violent revolution even against rulers
he disapproved, disagreeing with many Qadaris, whose doctrine
of human free will he shared. Al-Hasan noted the verse in the
Qur'an stating that God only sends astray evil-doers. Troops
led by the skilled general Maslama ibn 'Abd al-Malik defeated
the rebels and killed Yazid in August 720. Maslama later was removed
from his governorship for not sending surplus revenues to Damascus.
His replacement 'Umar ibn Hubayra was a Qaysi and pursued the
Muhallabis and Yemeni leaders. Yazid II increased taxes and tried
to reform the administration of Egypt. The Muslims' first major
defeat in Europe came at Toulouse in 721.

Hisham (r. 724-743) was born at Damascus in 691, and he appointed
the loyal Khalid ibn 'Abd Allah al-Qasri to govern the east that
included Iraq, Iran, and Khurasan. Khalid promoted agricultural
development and was said to have made 20 million dirhams
from his lands. Maslama had similar holdings, and he was ordered
to mobilize the Qaysis of Jazira to defend against an invasion
by the Khazar Turks from southern Russia in 732. He was relieved
by another Umayyad, Marwan ibn Muhammad ibn Marwan, who drove
the Khazars back to their capital on the Volga in 738. Khalid
sent his brother Asad with 20,000 men from Iraq in 732 against
Turgesh nomads in Khurasan; but the Turgesh were not defeated
until 737 when Asad organized a combined force of Arabs and Iranians.
In France a Frank army led by Charles Martel defeated the invading
Muslims, killing Spain's governor Abdul Rahman in 732. The Arabs
continued to attack French cities, seizing Avignon two years later
and looting Lyons in 743; but the tide had turned, and the Franks
gradually pushed most of the Muslims back across the Pyrenees
into Spain by 759. Berbers rebelled in 740 and drove Arabs out
of North Africa to Spain.

After Hisham the succession was to go to Yazid II's son al-Walid,
who was another drinker indulging in women and the arts. When
Hisham tried to get his son nominated, in 738 Khalid was replaced
by Hajjaj protégé Yusuf ibn 'Umar in Iraq and by
the Qaysi general Nar ibn Sayyar in Khurasan. Hisham was unpopular
for raising taxes and being stingy with government funds. A major
revolt broke out in Kufa in 740 led by Husain's grandson Zayd
ibn 'Ali, who demanded major reforms; but he was defeated and
killed when the Kufans abandoned him.

Al-Walid became Caliph in 743 and was so partisan toward the
Qaysi and negligent of religion that he was murdered by a Syrian
uprising the following year. Yazid III promised reforms but died
after five months. His brother Ibrahim was replaced after two
months when the governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan, Marwan ibn
Muhammad, was proclaimed Caliph at the Damascus mosque in December
744. He had seized the capital by driving the Yemeni leaders out
of Syria, but he established his court in the north at Harran
in Jazira. Rebellions by Yemeni Kalbis were quelled by 746. Military
means were also used to put down an uprising by Kharijis in Jazira,
and the 'Alid movement in Kufa was crushed by general ibn Dubara
in 748. The wars resulted in plague and famine in Syria.

The revolt that would finally overthrow the Umayyad dynasty
began in the east. By 748 Abu Muslim had driven out Umayyad governor
Nasr ibn Sayyar from the Khurasan capital at Marv and began sending
armies west under the black flag of the 'Abbasids. Marwan's Qaysi
army was now defeated in the Iranian plateau. Kufa was taken by
the rebels, and in October 749 the 'Abbasids proclaimed Abu'l-'Abbas
al-Saffa Caliph, while Umayyad governor ibn Hubayra held out at
Wasit. Ibn Huobayra was promised safe conduct; but when he surrendered,
he was executed. The 'Abbassids defeated the last Umayyad Caliph
Marwan four months later in a battle by the river Zab near the
Tigris. Marwan retreated to Syria; but finding little support
there, he fled to Egypt, where he was killed when his remaining
forces were defeated in August 750.

Notes

1. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah tr. A. Guillaume, The
Life of Muhammad, p. 183.

2. Ibid., p. 261.

3. Ibid., p. 369.

4. Ibid., p. 458.

5. Ibid., p. 629.

6. Quoted in Islam from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture
of Constantinople, Vol. 1 tr. Bernard Lewis, p. 151.

7. The Qur'an tr. N. J. Dawood, p. 121-122.

8. Payne, Robert, The History of Islam, p. 140.

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Tuesday, January 18, 2005

Muhammad and the Spread of Islam by Sanderson Beck

Muhammad and Islamic Conquest

This chapter has been published in the book Middle East
& Africa to 1875.

For information on
ordering click here.

Muhammad in Mecca

Muhammad in Medina at War 622-628

Muhammad Triumphant 628-632

Qur'an and Hadith

Islamic Wars in the Near East 632-661

Umayyad Caliphate 661-750

Muhammad in Mecca

Muhammad in Medina at War 622-628

Muhammad Triumphant 628-632

Qur'an and Hadith

Islamic Wars in the Near East 632-661

Umayyad Caliphate 661-750

Notes

Copyright © 2004 by Sanderson Beck. This article is copied from www.san.beck.org

This chapter has been published in the book Middle East
& Africa to 1875.

For information on
ordering click here.

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Lalit's Views

Wednesday, January 26, 2005

Reasons Why The English Language Is Hard To Learn

Tuesday, January 18, 2005

Muhammad and the Spread of Islam by Sanderson Beck

Muhammad and Islamic Conquest

This chapter has been published in the book Middle East& Africa to 1875.For information onordering click here.

Muhammad in MeccaMuhammad in Medina at War 622-628Muhammad Triumphant 628-632Qur'an and HadithIslamic Wars in the Near East 632-661Umayyad Caliphate 661-750

Muhammad in Mecca

Muhammad in Medina at War 622-628

Muhammad Triumphant 628-632

Qur'an and Hadith

Islamic Wars in the Near East 632-661

Umayyad Caliphate 661-750

Notes

Copyright © 2004 by Sanderson Beck. This article is copied from www.san.beck.org

This chapter has been published in the book Middle East& Africa to 1875.For information onordering click here.

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About Me

This chapter has been published in the book Middle East
& Africa to 1875.

For information on
ordering click here.

Muhammad in Mecca

Muhammad in Medina at War 622-628

Muhammad Triumphant 628-632

Qur'an and Hadith

Islamic Wars in the Near East 632-661

Umayyad Caliphate 661-750

This chapter has been published in the book Middle East
& Africa to 1875.

For information on
ordering click here.